Rwanda Under Colonial Influence

By Peter Göttert

Peter has been a member of Root Foundation Germany since 2024. Currently, he studies Sustainable Social Policy.

Power, Control and Division: Colonial Rule as the Origin of Political Upheaval

Rwanda’s history is closely intertwined with its colonial past. Between the late nineteenth century and independence in 1962, the country was first under German and then Belgian control. During this period, existing social structures were profoundly transformed: social categories such as the division of the population into Hutu, Tutsi and Twa, which had previously been flexible and permeable, were reinterpreted by the colonial powers as rigid, seemingly ethnic groups. “Ethnic” here refers to a social group category that is established and enforced through state institutions such as administration, law and education. It is also based on a mutually accepted self- and external attribution of belonging and is simultaneously defined through clear demarcation from other groups (Lindner, 2010, pp. 34, 36; Carney, 2013, pp. 14f.). This arbitrary categorisation of the Rwandan population served colonial power interests, but had long-term effects on relations within Rwandan society. The following text examines the central phases of colonial rule in Rwanda and shows how political, economic and social interventions from outside created conflicts whose effects continue to be felt today.

A Monarchy with Flexible Social Structures

Prior to colonisation, Rwanda was a centrally organised monarchy with a well-developed administration, whose society consisted of three groups: the Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. Within this kingdom, people communicated in a common language (Kinyarwanda) and practised a similar culture and religion (Shepley, 2025). Figures concerning the distribution of these groups within society are partly contested, as there are significant differences between censuses conducted during the Belgian colonial period and those conducted after independence. According to the figures most widely cited in the literature, the Rwandan population consisted of 85% Hutu, 14% Tutsi and 2% Twa (Nagar, 2021).

The criteria used to distinguish between the different groups are contested in the literature. Some scholars argue that there were no clearly distinct ethnic groups, but rather socio-economic groups whose members differed according to their position and roles within society (Carney, 2013, pp. 10ff.). The Tutsi were predominantly cattle herders and often constituted the ruling class. This was associated with a position of power within the royal court as well as wealth in the form of cattle. The Hutu, by contrast, were primarily subsistence farmers and constituted the majority of the population. The Twa group often consisted of hunters and craftspeople and represented the smallest share of the population. As defined above, pre-colonial group affiliation was therefore not ethnic in the sense described, but socially and economically determined. It was possible to change groups through economic advancement or marriage. Some scholars strongly reject interpreting these groups as a class system, considering this understanding to be overly reductive. They argue that political and spiritual factors within the kingdom were decisive for determining group affiliation (Lindner, 2010, p. 34). Moreover, the classification of these population groups as an ethnic system is largely rejected, as this was a concept that emerged during the colonial period and transformed social hierarchies into institutionalised ethnic divisions through racist, pseudoscientific theories. Mamdani, for example, distinguishes between the effects of German and Belgian colonial rule and their respective policies concerning identity categories (Mamdani in Lindner, 2010, p. 34). German race-based identity politics in Rwanda led to a distinction between “settlers” and “natives”, while Belgian colonial policy reinforced the distinction between several ethnic groups, which contributed to tensions within society (ibid.). This distinction will be elaborated on in the following sections.

Even before the colonial period, the Twa occupied a distinct but also marginalised position. Some Twa assumed roles at the royal court as dancers, warriors or spies. Their marginalisation intensified through the division along ethnic lines between Hutu and Tutsi and was expressed in the fact that the other two groups avoided marriages, meals and general social interaction with the Twa (Collins et al., 2021, pp. 580f.).

German Colonial Rule

Rwanda’s colonial history began in 1899 with its incorporation into the German colony of “German East Africa”, which encompassed present-day Burundi, Tanzania and Rwanda. During this period, the Tutsi monarchy that had existed prior to colonisation continued under King Yuhi V Musinga. The German Empire employed a system of indirect rule in “German East Africa” (Shepley, 2025). Indirect rule meant that the colonial power did not govern the population directly, but instead used the existing Rwandan structures of rule as an intermediary. Rather than establishing an extensive administrative network of its own, the colonial state formed alliances with local actors and left them responsible for the day-to-day enforcement of colonial directives. This system was less a consciously chosen ideal than a result of the shortage of German officials in the colonial territory. The colonial state often limited itself to a “watchdog role” and intervened only in cases of acute disruption to public order or trade, while local structures largely remained intact (Greiner, 2022, pp. 95f., 112). The cooperation between the German colonial power and the Tutsi king also strengthened the power of the Rwandan elite, which consisted primarily of Tutsi, and resulted in many administrative positions being occupied by Tutsi. In this way, colonial power structures were established that laid the foundations for later social tensions.

Furthermore, German colonial officials influenced Rwanda’s social structure by interpreting the distinction between the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa not as social but as racial, and by transferring racial ideologies onto Rwandan society. They explained the rule of a Tutsi minority over the rest of the Rwandan population in terms of racial superiority. The ancestors of the Tutsi were therefore assumed to have been “Hamites” from Christian Ethiopia, which supposedly made them genetically capable of ruling over the Hutu and Twa. This racial theory also influenced colonial policy and was reflected, for example, in economic measures taken by the German administration: the introduction of taxes and the promotion of coffee cultivation for export placed a greater burden on the Hutu in particular and intensified social inequalities (Lindner, 2010, p. 36). This racist classification by the German colonial administration had long-term consequences for Rwandan society, as social differences increasingly came to be perceived as “ethnic” and therefore natural. German colonial rule in Rwanda thus laid the foundations for subsequent social tensions (Lindner, 2010, pp. 34, 36; Carney, 2013, p. 11).

The Belgian Mandate Period

Following the First World War, German colonial rule in Rwanda came to an end. Belgium took over the administrative mandate over Rwanda and Burundi from the League of Nations. During this period, the social tensions between Hutu and Tutsi that had been exacerbated by German colonial rule deepened. Through several measures, the Belgian colonial administration institutionalised the differences between the population groups. In 1933, for example, identity cards were introduced that required people to state their group affiliation. Anyone who owned ten or more cattle at the time of their introduction was registered as Tutsi, while the others were classified as Hutu and Twa. From that point onwards, “ethnic” affiliation was regarded as inherited from the father, making it impossible to change groups. In addition, systematic preferential treatment of Tutsi in access to education, administration and the Church became established. This social division facilitated control and rule over the local population (Shepley, 2025).

The systematic social exclusion and marginalisation of other population groups led to growing discontent and tensions within Rwandan society. This resulted in Hutu emancipation movements that demanded independence from Belgium and a rejection of the Tutsi monarchy. Political tensions culminated for the first time in violent Hutu uprisings against the Belgian colonial power in 1959. Further uprisings took place until 1961, resulting in approximately 20,000 deaths and the flight of around 150,000 Tutsi to neighbouring countries (Federal Agency for Civic Education, 2020).

Independence and the Aftermath of Colonial Rule

In 1961, the Rwandan population voted to abolish the monarchy. In the parliamentary elections that followed, the Hutu party Parmehutu, which had emerged from the emancipation movement, came to power under the leadership of Grégoire Kayibanda. On 1 July 1962, Rwanda achieved full independence and Grégoire Kayibanda became Rwanda’s first elected president (Nations Encyclopedia, n.d.). However, the consequences of the colonial policy of social division became apparent in the following years: Tutsi were increasingly excluded from education and public service and became victims of violence. This resulted in large-scale movements of Tutsi refugees to neighbouring countries, while the government of Habyarimana prevented them from returning to Rwanda (DW Doku, 2024, 01:07:28–01:08:54). This further entrenched political instability in the country. The social tensions eventually culminated in the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi population as well as opposition Hutu and Twa, during which between 800,000 and one million Tutsi and moderate Hutu were systematically killed, and between 150,000 and 200,000 women were raped. In addition, the genocide resulted in the displacement of 2 million people to neighbouring countries and 1.5 million internally displaced people (Nagar, 2020, p. 162). As a direct response, the current government under Paul Kagame introduced what is known as De-Ethnicisation. The Rwandan government officially abolished the designations Hutu and Tutsi and instead emphasises the common identity of the population as Rwandan—an attempt to overcome the identity politics created under colonial rule.

The Long-Term Impact of Colonial Interventions

The history of Rwanda demonstrates how profoundly colonial interventions can transform societies: what was once a flexible and socially permeable system in Rwanda was forced into a rigid, hierarchical structure through external intervention and the power interests of first German and subsequently Belgian colonial rule. The introduction of racial categories, the institutionalisation of ethnic affiliation and the deliberate disadvantaging of certain groups created a division whose consequences extended far beyond the end of the colonial period. The 1994 genocide should therefore not be viewed as an isolated event, but rather as the result of a long process of political and social transformation. Today, Rwanda faces the challenge of coming to terms with this past through remembrance, reconciliation and efforts to create a shared national identity that is no longer based on colonial divisions.

References 

Bildung, B. für politische. (2020, April 2). Gedenken an den Völkermord in Ruanda | Hintergrund aktuell. bpb.de. https://www.bpb.de/kurz-knapp/hintergrund-aktuell/307318/gedenken-an-den-voelkermord-in-ruanda/

Collins, B., Laws, M. C., & Ntakirutimana, R. (2021). Becoming “Historically Marginalized Peoples”: Examining Twa perceptions of boundary shifting and re-categorization in post-genocide Rwanda. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 44(4), 576–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2020.1767798

Carney, J. J. (2013). Contested Categories: A Brief History of “Hutu” and “Tutsi.” In Rwanda Before the Genocide. Oxford University Press, Incorporated.

DW Doku. (2024, April 5). Kolonialismus und der Völkermord in Ruanda | DW Doku Deutsch [Videoaufnahme]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DPHP30EMYRo

Lindner, K. (2010). Radikalisierte Identitäten. Der Genozid in Ruanda und seine (post-) koloniale Vorgeschichte. Iz3w, 319, pp.34-37 

Nagar, M. F. (2021). The Road to Democratic Development Statehood in Africa: The Cases of Ethiopia, Mauritius, and Rwanda. Springer Nature

Nations Encyclopedia (o.J.). Abgerufen 21. Juli 2026, von https://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Rwanda-POLITICAL-PARTIES.html#google_vignette

Shepley, N. (2025, Oktober 28). The Scramble for Rwanda: How Colonialism Forged a Racial Divide. Explaining History Podcast. https://explaininghistory.org/2025/10/28/the-scramble-for-rwanda-how-colonialism-forged-a-racial-divide/